Subaru Justy Specs

GenerationFrame TypeWheelFrames
SUBARU JUSTY
Nov 1988 - Dec 1992
Hatchback Right Hand Drive
KA7, KA8



By Brian Wong, Reviewed by: Kurt Niebuhr, Updated on March 28, 2024
📌 Introduction to the Subaru Justy: A Brief Overview
📌 First Generation (1984-1994):
📌 Second Generation (1994-2003):
📌 Third Generation (2003-2007):
📌 Fourth Generation (2007-2011):
📌 Comparison of Engine Types: Performance and Efficiency Analysis
📌 Trim Levels and Features: Differentiating the Justy Models
📌 Pricing and Market Availability: Cost and Sales Information
📌 Historical Significance: Evolution of the Subaru Justy
📌 Popularity and Reception: Reviews and Customer Feedback
📌 Legacy and Impact: Influence on Subcompact Car Segment
📌 Conclusion: Summarizing the Subaru Justy's Specifications
📌 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) about the Subaru Justy

Introduction to the Subaru Justy: A Brief Overview

The Subaru Justy holds a special place in the automotive landscape as a compact and versatile subcompact car. Produced by the renowned Japanese automaker Subaru, the Justy was first introduced in 1984 and remained in production until 2011. Throughout its generational iterations, the Justy showcased a range of features and specifications that appealed to a diverse range of drivers.

The first generation of the Subaru Justy, spanning from 1984 to 1994, offered several engine options, including the EF10, EK12, and G13A. These powerplants provided reliable performance within the subcompact segment. Although specific trim levels were not explicitly defined during this period, the Justy focused on delivering a practical and economical driving experience.

In the second generation (1994-2003), the Justy continued to impress with its efficiency and engine options. Drivers could choose between the EF10 and EJ13 engines, each offering a unique blend of power and fuel economy. While trim levels were not extensively differentiated, the Justy's appeal lay in its functional design and affordable pricing.

The third generation (2003-2007) carried forward the same engine choices as its predecessor, maintaining the balance between performance and efficiency. The Justy's versatility remained a highlight, making it an attractive option for urban commuting and tight parking situations. Though trim levels were not explicitly defined during this period, the Justy offered a reliable and economical transportation solution.

In the fourth and final generation (2007-2011), the Justy received a refreshed design and updated engine options. Drivers now had the choice between the KF-VE and K3-VE engines, which provided improved power and enhanced fuel efficiency. The Justy continued to showcase its practicality and affordability, cementing its position as a reliable subcompact car.

Throughout its production years, the Subaru Justy became known for its noteworthy fuel efficiency, making it an economical choice for budget-conscious drivers. The Justy's compact size and nimble handling made it well-suited for navigating crowded city streets while still providing a comfortable ride.

The Subaru Justy's rich history and its ability to adapt to changing market demands established it as a popular choice among those seeking an affordable, reliable, and fuel-efficient vehicle. Its influence on the subcompact car segment cannot be understated, and the Justy remains an emblem of Subaru's commitment to providing practical transportation solutions to a wide range of drivers.

First Generation (1984-1994):

The first generation of the Subaru Justy, produced from 1984 to 1994, marked the debut of this subcompact car. During this period, the Justy showcased its versatility and reliability, solidifying its position in the automotive market.

Engine options available in the first generation included the EF10, EK12, and G13A. The EF10 was an inline-three engine known for its efficiency and smooth operation. The EK12 engine, another inline-three option, offered a balance of power and fuel economy. The G13A engine, also an inline-three, provided reliable performance for drivers.

While trim levels were not explicitly defined during this period, the focus of the first-generation Justy was on providing a practical and economical driving experience. It boasted a compact design that made it suitable for navigating urban environments and tight parking spaces.

In terms of specifications, the first-generation Justy offered respectable power output and fuel consumption figures. The engines provided adequate performance for daily driving needs while prioritizing fuel efficiency. The Justy's lightweight construction and efficient engines contributed to its economical operation.

With its compact dimensions, the first-generation Justy offered ample interior space, ensuring comfort for passengers. The vehicle's practicality extended to its cargo capacity, allowing for the transportation of essentials and small loads.

The first-generation Subaru Justy played a pivotal role in establishing Subaru's reputation for producing reliable and fuel-efficient vehicles. It appealed to a wide range of drivers seeking a compact car that provided cost-effective transportation without compromising on quality and functionality.

Throughout its production years, the first-generation Justy served as a testament to Subaru's commitment to delivering practical solutions for everyday driving. Its combination of efficient engines, compact design, and versatility set the foundation for future generations of the Justy and contributed to the model's enduring popularity.

Second Generation (1994-2003):

The second generation of the Subaru Justy, spanning from 1994 to 2003, brought forth further enhancements and refinements to this subcompact car. During this period, the Justy continued to offer a compelling combination of performance, efficiency, and practicality.

Engine options available in the second generation included the EF10 and EJ13. The EF10 engine, known for its compact size and fuel efficiency, provided reliable power for daily driving. The EJ13 engine, another inline-three option, offered improved performance without compromising fuel economy.

While trim levels were not extensively differentiated during this generation, the focus remained on delivering a practical and economical driving experience. The Justy's design continued to prioritize functionality, with its compact dimensions making it well-suited for urban commuting and navigating crowded city streets.

In terms of specifications, the second-generation Justy showcased respectable power output and fuel consumption figures. The engines provided adequate acceleration and performance for various driving needs while still maintaining efficiency. The Justy's lightweight construction and aerodynamic design contributed to its overall fuel efficiency.

The interior of the second-generation Justy offered comfortable seating and sufficient headroom and legroom for occupants. Despite its compact size, the Justy maximized interior space to provide a practical and functional cabin. Cargo capacity was also generous, allowing for the transport of belongings and essentials.

The second-generation Subaru Justy continued to solidify Subaru's reputation for producing reliable and fuel-efficient vehicles. It appealed to drivers seeking a compact car that excelled in both urban environments and longer journeys. The Justy's combination of efficient engines, practical design, and reliable performance made it a popular choice within the subcompact car segment.

Throughout its production years, the second-generation Justy remained true to its core principles, providing drivers with an affordable, reliable, and efficient mode of transportation. Its adaptability to various driving conditions and its focus on practicality contributed to its enduring appeal and positioned it as a successful model within the Subaru lineup.

Third Generation (2003-2007):

The third generation of the Subaru Justy, produced from 2003 to 2007, brought forth further advancements and improvements to this subcompact car. During this period, the Justy continued to evolve, offering enhanced features, updated engine options, and improved overall performance.

The engine options available in the third generation remained consistent with the previous generation, featuring the EF10 and EJ13 engines. These engines provided reliable power and fuel efficiency, striking a balance between performance and economy. The Justy continued to prioritize efficient and practical driving.

While trim levels were not explicitly defined during this generation, the Justy focused on delivering a reliable and economical transportation solution. Its compact design made it suitable for navigating urban environments, and its nimble handling contributed to its overall drivability.

In terms of specifications, the third-generation Justy offered respectable power output and fuel consumption figures. The engines provided sufficient performance for daily driving needs while maintaining fuel efficiency. The lightweight construction of the Justy contributed to its agile handling and improved fuel economy.

The interior of the third-generation Justy aimed to provide a comfortable and functional space for occupants. The cabin offered seating for passengers with ample headroom and legroom, ensuring a pleasant driving experience. The cargo capacity of the Justy allowed for the transportation of luggage and belongings, adding to its practicality.

The third-generation Subaru Justy continued to uphold Subaru's reputation for producing reliable and fuel-efficient vehicles. It appealed to drivers seeking a compact car that offered a balance between performance and efficiency. The Justy's practical design, economical operation, and dependable performance made it a popular choice within its segment.

Throughout its production years, the third-generation Justy remained committed to delivering an affordable and practical transportation solution. Its ability to adapt to various driving conditions, combined with its focus on fuel efficiency and reliability, solidified its position as a reputable subcompact car within the Subaru lineup.

Fourth Generation (2007-2011):

The fourth and final generation of the Subaru Justy, spanning from 2007 to 2011, brought significant updates and refinements to this subcompact car. During this period, the Justy underwent notable changes, including a refreshed design, updated engine options, and improved features.

The engine options available in the fourth generation included the KF-VE and K3-VE engines. These engines provided improved power and enhanced fuel efficiency compared to their predecessors. The Justy aimed to strike a balance between performance and economy, catering to drivers seeking both power and efficiency in a compact car.

While trim levels were not explicitly defined during this generation, the Justy offered a range of features and options to meet varying preferences. The focus remained on delivering a reliable and economical driving experience, with a particular emphasis on improved performance and fuel efficiency.

In terms of specifications, the fourth-generation Justy showcased enhanced power output and fuel consumption figures. The engines provided improved acceleration and performance, ensuring a dynamic driving experience. The lightweight construction of the Justy, combined with its updated engines, contributed to its overall efficiency and agility.

The interior of the fourth-generation Justy offered increased comfort and convenience for passengers. The cabin featured refined materials and ample seating space, allowing occupants to travel in comfort. The cargo capacity remained generous, providing practical storage solutions for luggage and everyday items.

The fourth-generation Subaru Justy continued to embody Subaru's commitment to reliability and fuel efficiency. It appealed to drivers seeking a compact car that combined power, efficiency, and practicality. The Justy's updated design, improved performance, and enhanced features positioned it as a competitive option within the subcompact car segment.

Throughout its production years, the fourth-generation Justy remained focused on providing an affordable, reliable, and efficient mode of transportation. Its ability to adapt to various driving conditions, coupled with its modern design and improved performance, solidified its place as a successful model within the Subaru lineup.

Comparison of Engine Types: Performance and Efficiency Analysis

The Subaru Justy offered a range of engine types throughout its production, each with its own performance characteristics and fuel efficiency. Let's compare and analyze these engine types to understand their respective benefits and capabilities.

The first-generation Subaru Justy featured engine options such as the EF10, EK12, and G13A. These engines, although modest in power output, prioritized fuel efficiency and reliability. They provided sufficient performance for urban commuting and everyday driving needs. The smaller displacement engines, such as the EF10 and EK12, offered excellent fuel economy, making the Justy an economical choice for budget-conscious drivers.

In the second and third generations, the Justy continued to offer the EF10 and EJ13 engines. These engines maintained a similar balance between performance and efficiency. The EF10 engine, in particular, was well-regarded for its fuel economy and smooth operation. The EJ13 engine offered slightly improved performance while still delivering good fuel efficiency. These engine options allowed drivers to enjoy a balance of power and economy in their Justy.

The fourth generation introduced updated engine options, namely the KF-VE and K3-VE engines. These engines provided enhanced power output while maintaining good fuel efficiency. The KF-VE and K3-VE engines offered improved acceleration and responsiveness, allowing for a more dynamic driving experience. Despite the increase in power, fuel efficiency remained a key aspect, ensuring that the Justy continued to deliver economical operation.

When comparing the performance and efficiency of the various engine types, it is important to consider the intended use and driving preferences. The smaller displacement engines in the early generations prioritized fuel economy, making them suitable for city driving and daily commutes. The updated engines in the later generations offered a better balance between power and efficiency, catering to drivers seeking improved performance without sacrificing fuel economy.

Overall, the Subaru Justy's engine lineup provided a range of options to suit different driver preferences. From fuel-efficient engines ideal for urban environments to updated powertrains that offered enhanced performance, the Justy delivered a well-rounded driving experience. Whether drivers sought economical operation or a bit more power, the Justy's engine options allowed them to find the right balance for their needs.

Trim Levels and Features: Differentiating the Justy Models

The Subaru Justy offered various trim levels throughout its production, each with its own set of features and equipment. These trim levels aimed to provide drivers with options that catered to their preferences and needs. Let's explore the differentiating features of the Justy models across its generations.

In the first generation, the Justy's trim levels were not extensively differentiated. However, the focus remained on delivering a practical and economical driving experience. Standard features included manual transmission, front-wheel drive, and a compact yet functional design. The interior offered comfortable seating and basic amenities for an enjoyable driving experience.

Moving into the second generation, trim levels continued to focus on providing a reliable and economical transportation solution. While specific trim levels were not explicitly defined, the Justy maintained its practical design and affordability. Features such as air conditioning, power steering, and enhanced safety features became more widely available, improving the overall comfort and convenience for occupants.

The third-generation Justy followed a similar approach, prioritizing practicality and affordability. While trim levels were not explicitly defined, the Justy continued to offer a range of features to enhance the driving experience. Upgrades included power windows, power locks, improved audio systems, and additional safety features, further enhancing the Justy's appeal to drivers seeking a subcompact car with modern conveniences.

In the fourth and final generation, the Justy underwent a refreshed design and introduced more defined trim levels. While the specific trim levels may vary depending on the market, the Justy offered options such as GL, GX, and G3X. These trim levels added more features and equipment to the Justy, including alloy wheels, upgraded upholstery, advanced audio systems, and additional safety technologies. This allowed drivers to choose a Justy model that aligned with their desired level of comfort and convenience.

Across its generations, the Subaru Justy remained committed to providing practicality, reliability, and affordability. The introduction of more defined trim levels in the later generations allowed drivers to have greater customization options. Whether drivers sought basic functionality or desired additional features, the Justy's trim levels provided choices that catered to a range of preferences.

The Subaru Justy's trim levels and features showcased the brand's commitment to delivering a well-rounded subcompact car. From basic necessities to modern amenities, the Justy evolved over the years to meet the changing demands of drivers, ensuring a comfortable and enjoyable driving experience for its owners.

Pricing and Market Availability: Cost and Sales Information

The pricing and market availability of the Subaru Justy varied based on factors such as the generation, trim level, and geographic region. Understanding the cost and sales information provides insight into the affordability and popularity of the Justy in different markets.

In the first generation, the Justy was positioned as an economical and budget-friendly option. Its competitive pricing made it an attractive choice for drivers seeking a cost-effective mode of transportation. The affordability of the Justy contributed to its popularity and sales success, particularly among price-conscious consumers.

As the generations progressed, the Justy's pricing evolved to reflect advancements in technology, features, and overall quality. The introduction of updated trim levels and enhanced equipment levels resulted in a range of price points, allowing customers to choose a Justy model that suited their budget and desired level of amenities.

Market availability of the Justy also varied depending on the region. The Justy was primarily targeted at urban and suburban markets, where its compact size and fuel efficiency appealed to drivers navigating congested city streets. While availability may have been more limited in some markets compared to others, the Justy still enjoyed popularity and sales success in areas where it was offered.

Furthermore, the availability of used Subaru Justy models in the market provided an additional avenue for customers to own a Justy at a lower cost. Used Justy vehicles, often at a reduced price compared to new models, allowed drivers on a tighter budget to experience the benefits and reliability of the Justy.

Overall, the pricing and market availability of the Subaru Justy were key factors in its success. The Justy's competitive pricing, coupled with its practicality and fuel efficiency, made it an attractive option for cost-conscious drivers. The availability of both new and used models ensured that the Justy catered to a wide range of customers, making it a popular choice within the subcompact car segment.

Historical Significance: Evolution of the Subaru Justy

The Subaru Justy holds historical significance as a notable member of Subaru's vehicle lineup, showcasing the brand's commitment to producing reliable and fuel-efficient subcompact cars. Its evolution over the years highlights Subaru's dedication to meeting the changing demands of drivers and adapting to advancements in technology and design.

The first generation of the Justy, introduced in 1984, marked Subaru's entry into the subcompact car segment. With its compact size, efficient engines, and practical design, the Justy quickly gained popularity as an affordable and economical choice. It demonstrated Subaru's ability to deliver reliable transportation solutions that met the needs of budget-conscious drivers.

As the years progressed, subsequent generations of the Justy introduced updates and improvements to enhance its appeal. The second and third generations focused on refining the Justy's performance, fuel efficiency, and overall driving experience. These advancements included more powerful engines, improved safety features, and upgraded interior amenities, positioning the Justy as a competitive player in the subcompact car market.

In its fourth and final generation, the Justy underwent a refreshed design and offered more defined trim levels. This generation showcased Subaru's commitment to modernizing the Justy, incorporating features and technologies that appealed to a wider range of customers. The introduction of advanced safety features, enhanced infotainment systems, and improved interior comfort reflected Subaru's dedication to keeping up with evolving industry standards and customer expectations.

The evolution of the Subaru Justy demonstrated Subaru's ability to adapt to changing market demands while staying true to its core values of reliability and efficiency. The Justy's historical significance lies in its role as a testament to Subaru's commitment to producing practical and affordable vehicles that cater to a diverse range of drivers.

By continuously improving the Justy over its production years, Subaru solidified its position as a reputable automaker within the subcompact car segment. The Justy's historical significance is not only tied to its individual success but also to the larger narrative of Subaru's growth and evolution as a brand.

Popularity and Reception: Reviews and Customer Feedback

The Subaru Justy garnered a varied reception and achieved a level of popularity within the automotive community. Reviews and customer feedback shed light on the strengths and weaknesses of the Justy, providing insights into its overall appeal.

Throughout its generations, the Justy received praise for its reliability and fuel efficiency. Many customers appreciated its economical operation, making it an attractive choice for daily commuting and urban driving. The Justy's compact size and nimble handling were also often commended, as they allowed for easy maneuverability in tight city streets and parking spaces.

The Justy's reputation for reliability was bolstered by its robust construction and the longevity of its components. Owners often cited the Justy's durability and minimal maintenance requirements, which added to its appeal as a practical and cost-effective vehicle.

While the Justy's emphasis was on efficiency and affordability, some reviewers noted that its performance may have felt lackluster, particularly in earlier generations. The smaller engines, while efficient, may not have provided the same level of power and acceleration as larger vehicles. However, customers who prioritized fuel economy and reliability often found these trade-offs acceptable.

As the Justy evolved, later generations introduced updates and improvements to address performance concerns and enhance the overall driving experience. This included the introduction of more powerful engines, improved handling, and additional features. These updates were well-received and contributed to the Justy's growing popularity among drivers seeking a balance of performance and efficiency.

In terms of customer feedback, many Justy owners expressed satisfaction with their purchase, highlighting its practicality and value for money. The Justy's affordability and low cost of ownership appealed to a wide range of drivers, particularly those looking for a dependable daily driver or a budget-friendly second car.

Overall, the Subaru Justy gained popularity and received positive reviews for its reliability, fuel efficiency, and practicality. While some critics may have highlighted performance limitations, the Justy's emphasis on affordability and economical operation resonated with many customers. The Justy's positive reception and enduring popularity within the automotive community showcase its ability to meet the needs of drivers seeking a reliable and efficient subcompact car.

Legacy and Impact: Influence on Subcompact Car Segment

The Subaru Justy has left a lasting legacy and made a significant impact on the subcompact car segment. Its influence can be seen in various aspects, ranging from its innovative design to its emphasis on fuel efficiency and practicality.

One of the notable impacts of the Justy is its role in shaping the perception of Subaru as a reliable automaker in the subcompact car market. The Justy showcased Subaru's ability to produce vehicles that combine affordability, fuel efficiency, and dependability, which resonated with a broad range of customers. The success and positive reputation of the Justy helped solidify Subaru's position as a reputable brand within the subcompact car segment.

The Justy's focus on fuel efficiency and practicality influenced the broader industry's approach to subcompact car design. As environmental concerns and fuel economy regulations grew, manufacturers started prioritizing smaller, more efficient engines and lightweight construction, taking cues from the Justy's approach. The Justy's success demonstrated that drivers were receptive to subcompact cars that offered economical operation without compromising on reliability or functionality.

Furthermore, the Justy's impact can be seen in the evolution of subsequent Subaru models. The lessons learned from the Justy's development and market reception influenced the design and engineering of future Subaru vehicles. This legacy can be seen in the continued emphasis on reliability, fuel efficiency, and practicality across Subaru's lineup, even in larger vehicle segments.

The Justy also served as a stepping stone for Subaru's expansion into global markets. Its success in various regions around the world paved the way for Subaru to gain a stronger foothold in the subcompact car segment internationally. The positive reception and sales of the Justy demonstrated the demand for Subaru's unique combination of practicality, reliability, and fuel efficiency on a global scale.

Overall, the Subaru Justy's legacy and impact can be seen in its influence on the subcompact car segment and Subaru's broader reputation as a reliable and fuel-efficient automaker. Its innovative design, emphasis on practicality, and positive reception by customers have shaped Subaru's approach to vehicle development and helped establish the brand as a significant player in the automotive industry.

Conclusion: Summarizing the Subaru Justy's Specifications

The Subaru Justy, spanning four generations from 1984 to 2011, showcased Subaru's commitment to producing practical and economical subcompact cars. Throughout its production years, the Justy underwent several updates and improvements to enhance its performance, features, and overall appeal.

In terms of engine options, the Justy offered a range of choices across its generations. These included small-displacement gasoline engines, such as the 1.0-liter EF10, 1.2-liter EF12, and 1.3-liter EJ-VE engines. These engines prioritized fuel efficiency while providing adequate power for daily driving needs.

The Justy's generations also introduced advancements in safety features, such as improved braking systems, seatbelt pretensioners, and airbag systems. These additions aimed to enhance occupant protection and overall safety performance.

Trim levels varied across the generations, with some generations offering more defined trim options than others. Features such as air conditioning, power steering, power windows, power locks, alloy wheels, and advanced audio systems became available in later generations, adding convenience and comfort to the Justy lineup.

The Justy's pricing and market availability were positioned to appeal to cost-conscious buyers seeking an affordable and reliable transportation solution. Its competitive pricing and reputation for fuel efficiency contributed to its popularity and sales success in various markets.

Throughout its existence, the Subaru Justy garnered a positive reception for its reliability, fuel efficiency, practicality, and value for money. While some critics noted performance limitations, the Justy's emphasis on affordability and economical operation resonated with many customers, solidifying its place in the subcompact car segment.

The Subaru Justy's legacy lies in its influence on the subcompact car segment, as it helped shape the industry's approach to fuel efficiency, practicality, and reliability. Its impact can be seen in Subaru's continued commitment to producing vehicles that combine these qualities across its lineup.

Overall, the Subaru Justy's specifications, including its engine options, safety features, trim levels, pricing, and market reception, reflect its position as a practical and economical choice for drivers seeking a reliable and fuel-efficient subcompact car.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) about the Subaru Justy

What are the different generations of the Subaru Justy?

The Subaru Justy was produced in four generations: First Generation (1984-1994), Second Generation (1994-2003), Third Generation (2003-2007), and Fourth Generation (2007-2011).

What engine options were available for the Subaru Justy?

The engine options varied across the generations of the Subaru Justy. Some of the available engine types included the 1.0-liter EF10, 1.2-liter EF12, and 1.3-liter EJ-VE engines.

Did the Subaru Justy offer different trim levels?

Yes, the Subaru Justy offered different trim levels across its generations. The specific trim levels and their available features varied by year and model.

What were the notable features of the Subaru Justy?

The features available in the Subaru Justy varied by generation and trim level. Some notable features included air conditioning, power steering, power windows, power locks, alloy wheels, and advanced audio systems.

How fuel-efficient was the Subaru Justy?

The fuel efficiency of the Subaru Justy depended on the engine and generation. However, the Justy was generally known for its fuel efficiency, making it an economical choice for daily commuting.

Were there any safety features in the Subaru Justy?

Yes, the Subaru Justy introduced various safety features across its generations to enhance occupant protection. These features may have included improved braking systems, seatbelt pretensioners, and airbag systems.

What was the market reception of the Subaru Justy?

The Subaru Justy received a mixed reception depending on the generation and market. However, it gained popularity for its reliability, fuel efficiency, and affordability, appealing to cost-conscious buyers.

How did the Subaru Justy influence the subcompact car segment?

The Subaru Justy left a legacy and impact on the subcompact car segment through its emphasis on practicality, reliability, and fuel efficiency. Its influence can be seen in the design and engineering approaches adopted by other manufacturers.

Is the Subaru Justy still available in the market today?

The production of the Subaru Justy ceased in 2011. However, used Subaru Justy models may still be available in the market for those interested in purchasing a pre-owned vehicle.

Can the Subaru Justy be considered a budget-friendly car?

Yes, the Subaru Justy was positioned as a budget-friendly option, offering affordable pricing, low maintenance costs, and fuel-efficient operation, making it an attractive choice for cost-conscious buyers.


Brian Wong - Senior Reviews Editor of cars-directory.net

Brian Wong / Author

Brian Wong is an accomplished automotive journalist and editor with a passion for cars. With over a decade of experience in the industry, he has established himself as a trusted voice in the automotive community. Brian has written extensively about a wide range of topics in the field, from the latest trends in car design to innovative safety features and emerging technologies. As a senior reviews editor, he is responsible for test driving and analyzing the latest cars on the market, providing readers with accurate and objective reviews. His articles are widely read and respected for their depth of knowledge and analysis. Brian is committed to staying at the forefront of the latest developments in the automotive industry, and is dedicated to sharing his expertise and insights with his readers.